Aspirin Reduces Deaths From Some Cancers

BOB DOUGHTY: This is SCIENCE IN THE NEWS in VOA Special English. I'm Bob Doughty.

FAITH LAPIDUS: And I’m Faith Lapidus. This week, we will tell the story of aspirin.

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BOB DOUGHTY: People have known since ancient times that aspirin lessens pain and lowers high body temperature. But that is not all the drug can do. It has gained important new uses in recent years. Small amounts may help prevent a stroke or heart attack. Some researchers say aspirin may help patients with colon cancer live longer, or may even prevent some cancers.

But doctors also warn that the acid in aspirin can cause problems like bleeding in the stomach and intestines.

FAITH LAPIDUS: So, how did aspirin become so important? The story begins with a willow tree. Two thousand years ago, the Greek doctor Hippocrates advised his patients to chew on the bark and leaves of the willow.

The tree contains a chemical called salicin. In the eighteen hundreds, researchers discovered how to make salicylic acid from the chemical. In eighteen ninety-seven, a chemist named Felix Hoffmann at Friedrich Bayer and Company in Germany created acetyl salicylic acid.

Later, it became the active substance in a medicine that Bayer called aspirin. The "a" came from acetyl. The "spir" came from the spirea plant, which also produces salicin. And the "in"? That is a common way to end medicine names.

BOB DOUGHTY: In nineteen eighty-two, a British scientist shared the Nobel Prize in Medicine in part for discovering how aspirin works. Sir John Vane found that aspirin blocks the body from making natural substances called prostaglandins.

Prostaglandins have several effects on the body. Some cause pain and the expansion, or swelling, of damaged tissue. Others protect the lining of the stomach and small intestine.

Prostaglandins also make the heart, kidneys and blood vessels work well. But there is a problem. Aspirin works against all prostaglandins, good andbad.

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FAITH LAPIDUS: Scientists have also learned how aspirin interferes with an enzyme. One form of this enzyme makes the prostaglandin that causes pain and swelling. Another form of the enzyme creates a protective effect. So aspirin can reduce pain and swelling in damaged tissues. But it can also harm the inside of the stomach and small intestine. And sometimes it can cause bleeding.

But a British study released in two thousand nine suggests that taking another drug with a small amount of aspirin may help reduce the risk of bleeding. If that proves true, it would help thousands of people who are seeking to prevent life-threatening conditions.

BOB DOUGHTY: Many people take aspirin to reduce the risk of a heart attack or stroke from blood clots. Clots can block the flow of blood to the heart or brain and cause a heart attack or stroke. Scientists say aspirin prevents blood cells called platelets from sticking together to form clots.

A California doctor named Lawrence Craven first noted this effect sixty years ago. He observed unusual bleeding in children who chewed on an aspirin product to ease the pain after a common operation.

Doctor Craven believed that the bleeding took place because aspirin prevented blood from thickening. He thought this effect might help prevent heart attacks caused by blood clots.

He examined the medical records of eight thousand aspirin users and found no heart attacks in this group. He invited other scientists to test his ideas. But it was years before large studies took place.

FAITH LAPIDUS: Charles Hennekens of Harvard Medical School led one of the studies. In nineteen eighty-three, he began to study more than twenty-two thousand healthy male doctors over forty years of age. Half took an aspirin every other day. The others took what they thought was aspirin. But it was only a placebo, a harmless substance.

Five years later, Doctor Hennekens reported that people who took aspirin reduced their risk of a heart attack. But they had a higher risk of bleeding in the brain than the other doctors.

BOB DOUGHTY: Last year, a group of experts examined studies of aspirin at the request of federal health officials in the United States. The experts said people with an increased risk of a heart attack should take a low-strength aspirin every day.

Aspirin may help someone who is having a heart attack caused by a blockage in a blood vessel. Aspirin thins the blood, so it may be able to flow past the blockage. But heart experts say people should seek emergency help immediately. And they say an aspirin is no substitute treatment, only for temporary help.

FAITH LAPIDUS: But what about reducing pain? Aspirin competes with many other medicines for reducing pain and high body temperature. The competition includes acetaminophen, the active substance in products like Tylenol. Like the medicine ibuprofen, aspirin is an NSAID -- a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug.

Several studies have found that men who take aspirin and other NSAIDS have a decreased risk of prostate cancer. The prostate is part of the male reproductive system.

BOB DOUGHTY: Researchers at the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota wanted to see how NSAIDs might affect prostates that are enlarged but not cancerous. They followed the health of two thousand, five hundred men for twelve years.

The researchers said these drugs may delay or stop development of an enlarged prostate. They said the risk of an enlarged prostate was fifty percent lower in the NSAID users than the other men. The risk of bladder problems was thirty-five percent lower.

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FAITH LAPIDUS: Other studies have suggested that aspirin can help with cancer prevention and survival. They showed that aspirin may help prevent cancers of the stomach, intestines and colon.

Researchers reported in two thousand nine about people who had colorectal cancer. They found that aspirin users had an almost thirty percent lower risk of dying from their cancer. That was during an average of eleven years after the cancer was discovered.

BOB DOUGHTY: Two years ago, European researchers reported that aspirin may have what they called a “long-term protective effect against colorectal cancer.” Peter Rothwell of the University of Oxford led the researchers. They examined twenty years of results from four large studies.

The studies involved fourteen thousand people. Some of them took a seventy-five milligram baby aspirin once a day. Others took a three hundred milligram, adult-sized aspirin.

The researchers found that people who took one aspirin a day for about six years reduced their risk of colon cancer by twenty-four percent. And deaths from the disease dropped by thirty-five percent. That was in comparison to those who took a harmless substance or nothing at all.

FAITH LAPIDUS: Last week, the Lancet published the combined results of a larger observational study, also led by Professor Rothwell. This time, he and researchers examined eight studies that involved more than twenty-five thousand individuals.

They found that taking a small aspirin once a day reduced death rates from a number of common cancers. Taking seventy-five milligrams of aspirin daily for five years reduced the risk of bowel cancer by one-fourth. Deaths from the disease fell by one-third.

BOB DOUGHTY: Aspirin does not help everything, however. It can cause problems. For example, it can interfere with other medicines, although this is true of many drugs. Also, some people should not take aspirin. People who take other blood thinners or have bleeding disorders are among this group. Pregnant women are usually told to avoid aspirin.

And research has shown a link between aspirin use and the disease Reye's syndrome. Children’s doctors say patients up to age nineteen should not take anything containing salicylatic products when sick with high temperatures.

FAITH LAPIDUS: Experts say most people should not take aspirin for disease prevention without first talking to a doctor because there are risks to taking aspirin. Some researchers have even said that some people get little or no protection from aspirin. So research continues on one of the oldest and most widely used drugs in the world.

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BOB DOUGHTY: This SCIENCE IN THE NEWS was written by Jerilyn Watson and Christopher Cruise. Our producer was June Simms. I’m Bob Doughty.

FAITH LAPIDUS: And I'm Faith Lapidus. Join us again next week for more news about science in Special English on the Voice of America.

Like versus Such as

Today’s topic is “like” versus “such as.”

The podcast edition of this article was sponsored by Audible. Get a free audiobook to keep when you sign up for a free 14-day trial at AudiblePodcast.com/gg.

“Like” Versus “Such As”

Should you write, “Chuck enjoys desserts such as brownies, cheesecake, and macaroons” or “Chuck enjoys desserts like brownies, cheesecake, and macaroons”? Either is acceptable to many grammarians and veteran writers, but let’s look at why using “such as” is better in this instance.

When Should You Use “Such As” Instead of “Like”?

Note that the second example suggests a comparison (like brownies…), whereas the first example implies inclusion (such as brownies…), and that’s precisely what is meant. In other words, many consider likeness as not being the thing itself. When you say “desserts like brownies,” you're implying that you don't enjoy brownies themselves, but instead enjoy a different dessert similar to brownies. It's a subtle difference, but one to be aware of.

Here are a few more examples:

Brad laughs when he hears words such as “flabbergasted,” “rutabaga,” and “hornswoggle.” (The “such as” tells us that “flabbergasted,” “rutabaga,” and “hornswoggle” are included in the list of words that make Brad laugh.)

Characters like Cinderella, Dracula, and Frankenstein continue to appear in movies and novels. (The “like” tells us characters that are comparable to Cinderella, Dracula, and Frankenstein continue to appear in movies and novels.)

Jill would love to travel to several European cities such as London, Florence, and Athens. (The “such as” tells us these are specific cities Jill wants to see.)

Doctor Coughlin dreads seeing patients like Mrs. Carbuncle. (The “like” tells us there are other patients as difficult as Mrs. Carbuncle and Doctor Coughlin doesn't enjoy seeing them either.)

And in the following case, the sentence is OK either way, depending on the intended meaning:

A zombie like Zeke should be small and sneaky.

A zombie such as Zeke should be small and sneaky.

Divided Opinion on “Like” Versus “Such As”

Why do you think there are mixed views regarding the usage of our words in question? Some language experts, such as Patricia O’Connor (the author of Woe Is I), state that “'like' sounds better” because “'such as' has a more formal air” (1). I both disagree and agree with her. To my ear, “such as” sounds better in the sentence about Chuck’s favorite desserts: Chuck enjoys desserts such as brownies, cheesecake, and macaroons. However, I do agree that “such as” does sometimes have a more formal air to it, but I don't find that air stifling.

That contrasting view has actually existed for at least a century. For example, in the enduring dictionary of English usage by H. W. Fowler, we find this line: “Opinion is neatly divided about the merits of 'like' or 'such as'…” (2). What Fowler then points out about these distinctions is worth noting. He wrote, “The choice is often governed by the meaning: if the sense required is ‘resembling’ then 'like' is preferable. And there is much to be said in favour of 'such as' when more than one example of a class [that is, a group] is mentioned” (3). Here’s a group-related example:

Of our body’s many vital organs, such as the heart, the kidneys, and the liver, people may not know that “The skin is the largest organ in the human body” (4).

What Punctuation Should You Use with “Such As”?

There is one more issue regarding “such as” that needs to be addressed. Many people incorrectly include a comma or a colon when using “such as.”

Don’t use a comma or a colon in the following situations:

Instrumental music, such as [no comma] classical and jazz, helps Jessica draw better.

The clippings in Kristen’s Funny Writing box include topics such as [no colon] dangling participles, spoonerisms, and eggcorns.

When Do You Use a Comma with “Such As”?

Now you might be wondering why a comma is included before “such as” in that first example but not in the second. It’s because in the first sentence the “such as” phrase is part of a nonrestrictive (nonessential) clause, so a comma is needed; in other words, you can take out the such as phrase, and the sentence will still make sense.

Instrumental music, such as classical and jazz, helps Jessica draw better.

Instrumental music helps Jessica draw better.

In contrast, because the such as phrase in the second example sentence is restrictive (essential), a comma doesn’t go there; in other words, “The clippings in Kristen’s Funny Writing box include topics” needs the additional “such as” phrase to complete the meaning of the sentence.

For further clarification, let’s go back to an earlier example: “Jill would love to travel to several European cities” is a main clause (it conveys a complete thought), and the phrase “such as London, Florence, and Athens” gives additional but nonessential information; therefore—according to many style guides and writers’ handbooks— a comma is needed before “such as.” Many writers, however, intentionally break that usage rule to avoid bumpy comma-crowding.

So, again, you can see that rulings are mixed in this closely contested match between “like” and “such as.”

Geoff Pope

by Grammar Girl

Appointment Vs. Reservation

Complete Transcript PDF

Do you have an appointment? Do you have a reservation? What’s the difference between these and when do we use them?